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Chytrid Fungus

 

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis Longcore & Nichols

 

Chytridiomyceles:  Rhizophydiales

 

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       This fungus has become a major threat to amphibians as they develop chytridiomycosis, which causes death in susceptible species.  The first outbreaks in the late 1990s occurred in Australia and Central America, then the fungus spread worldwide on amphibians and caused population declines or extinctions in several regions.  It is an external pathogen that attaches to keratinized portions of amphibians, including the mouthparts of tadpoles and the integument of adults.  The fungus produces sporangia that spread with flagellated zoospores, by direct contact of hosts.   A degradation of the keratin layer in the host is usually followed by death.  Although over 100 amphibian species can be infected, susceptibility is mostly life stage and species specific.  Fungus outbreaks are associated with local and possible species extinctions in Australia, Central America, and the United States..

 

       The recent emergence of chytridiomycosis in amphibians may be related to environmental pollutants and habitat destruction.  The first outbreaks occurred in 1998 in both Australia and Central America.  Since then infections have been documented throughout the Americas, Europe and Southeast Asia.  Chytrid fungus infections are known from 1938 museum specimens of African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis), which points to an African origin.

 

REFERENCES:

 

Andre, S. E, J. Parker & C. J. Briggs.  2008.  Effect of temperature on host response to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in the mountain yellow-legged frog  Lithobates muscosa).   Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 44 (3):  716–720.

 

Bai, C.; T. W. Garner & Y. Li.  2010.  First evidence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in China: discovery of chytridiomycosis in introduced American bullfrogs and native amphibians in the Yunnan Province, China .  Dis Aquatic Org. 92  (1):  241–244.

 

 Berger, L, A. D. Hyatt, R. Speare & J. E.  Longcore.  2005.  Life cycle stages of the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.   Dis. Aquatic Org. 68 (1):  51–63.

 

Berger, L, R. Speare, P. Daszak, D. E. Green, A. A. Cunningham, C. L. Goggin, R. Slocombe, M. A. Ragan, A. D. Hyatt, K. R. McDonald, H. B. Hines, K. R. Lips, G. Marantelli & H. Parkes.  1998.  Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (15):  9031–6.

 

Bovero,  S.,  G. Sotgiu G., C. Angelini, S.  Doglio, E. Gazzaniga, A. A.  Cunningham  & T. W. Garner.  2008.  Detection of chytridiomycosis caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the endangered sardinian newt (Euproctus platycephalus), in Southern Sardinia, Italy.   Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 44 (3):  712–715.

 

Brodman, R. & J. T. Briggler.  2008.   Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Ambystoma jeffersonianum larvae in southern Indiana . Herpetological Review. 39 (3):  320–321.

 

Byrne, M. W., E. P. Davie & J. W. Gibbons.  2008.  Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis occurrence in Eurycea cirrigera . Southeastern Naturalist. 7 (3):  551–555.

 

Courtois, E. A.,  P. Gaucher, J. Chave  &  D. S. Schmeller. 2015.  Widespread Occurrence of Bd in French Guiana, South America.  PLOS ONE. 10 (4):  125-128.

 

Daszak, P., A. A. Cuningham  &  A. D.  Hyatt.  2003.  Infection disease and amphibian population declines . Divers. Distrib. 9 (2):  141–150.

 

Daszak, P., A. A. Cunningham  &  A. D.  Hyatt.  2003.  Infectious disease and amphibian population declines.  Diversity and Distributions. 9 (2):  141–50.

 

Daszak.  P., A. Strieby,  A. A. Cunningham, J. E.  Longcore, C. C. Brown  &  D.  Porter.  2004.  Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians. Herpetological Journal. 14:  201–207.

 

Di Rosa,  I.,  et al.  2007.  The Proximate Cause of Frog Declines?.   Nature. 447 (7144):  E4–E5.

 

Di Renzo, Graziella;  Elise Zipkin, Evan Grant, D. Campbe, J. Andrew Royle, Ana Longo, Kelly Zamudio  &  Karen Lips.  2018.   Ecoevolutionary rescue promotes host–pathogen coexistence.  Ecological Applications. 28 (8):  1948–1962.

 

Dortaj, I. M. & M. J. San Francisco.  2008.  Chemotaxis of the amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and its response to a variety of attractants.   Mycologia. 100 (1):  1–5.

 

Erismis, U. C., M. Konuk, T. Yoldas, P. Agyar, D. Yumuk  & S. E. Korcan.  2014.  Survey of Turkey's endemic amphibians for chytrid fungus  Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, in Turkey.    Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 111 (2):  153–157.

 

Fisher, M. C., T. W. Garner &  S. F. Walker.  2009.  Global emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and amphibian chytridiomycosis inspace, time, and host.   Annual Review of Microbiology. 63:  291–310.

 

Gaertner,  J. P.,  M. R. Forstner, L.  O'Donnell  & D. Hahn.  2009.  Detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in endemic salamander species from Central Texas.   Eco Health. 6 (1):  20–26.

 

Gaertner,  J. P.,  J. A. Mendoza, M. R.  Forstner, T. Neang  &  D. Hahn D.  2011.  Detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in frogs from different locations in Cambodia.  Herpetological Review. 42:  546–548.

 

Garner.  T. W.,  M. W. Perkins, P. Govindarajulu, D. Seglie, S. Walker, A. A.  Cunningham  &  M. C.  Fisher.  2006.  The emerging amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis globally infects introduced populations of the North American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeiana.  Biol. Lett. 2 (3):  455–9.

 

Herrera,  R. A.,  M. M. Steciow  &  G. S. Natale.   2005.   Chytrid fungus parasitizing the wild amphibian Leptodactylus ocellatus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in Argentina .  Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 64 (3):  247–52.

 

Johnson, M. L.  &  R.  Speare.  2005.  Possible modes of dissemination of the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the environment.   Dis. Aquat. Org. 65 (3):  181–6.

 

Kats,  L. B.  &  R. P. Ferrer.  2003.  Alien predators and amphibian declines: review of two decades of science and the transition to conservation.   Diversity and Distributions. 9 (2):  99–110.

 

Kusrini,  M. D., L. F. Skerratt, S. Garland, L. Berger  & W.  Endarwin.  2008.  Chytridiomycosis in frogs of Mount Gede Pangrango, Indonesia.  Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 82 (3):  187–194.

 

Lehtinen, M., Y. C. Kam &  C. L. Richards.  2008.  Preliminary surveys for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Taiwan/   Herpetological Review.  39 (3):  317–318

 

Lips, K. R.  1999.  Mass mortality and population declines of anurans at an upland site in western Panama.  Conservation Biology. 13 (1):  117–125.

 

Longcore, J.  E.,  A. P. Pessier  &  D. K. Nichols.  1999.  Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis gen. et sp. nov, a chytrid pathogenic to amphibians.  Mycologia. 91 (2):  219–227.

 

Lovich, R., J. J. Ryan, A. P.  Pessier  &  B. Claypool.  2008.  Infection with the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in a non-native Lithobates berlandieri below sea level in the Coachella Valley, California, USA.  Herpetological Review. 39 (3):  315–317.

 

Martel,  A.; A. Spitzen-van der Sluijs, M. Blooi, W. Bert, R.  Ducatelle, M. C. Fisher, A. Woeltjes, W. Bosman, K.  Chiers,  F. Bossuyt  &  F. Pasmans.  2013.  Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (38):  15325–15329.

 

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McLeod, D. S., J. A. Sheridan, W.  Jiraungkoorskul  & W. Khonsue.  2008.  A survey for chytrid fungus in Thai amphibians.  Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 56:  199–204.

 

McMahon, Taegan A. et al.  2013.  Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has nonamphibian hosts and releases chemicals that cause pathology in the absence of infection.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110.1 (2013):  210-215.

 

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Mendoza,  J. A.,  J. P. Gaertner,  J. Holden, M. R. Forstner  &  D. Hahn.  2011.  Detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on amphibians in Pursat Province, Cambodia.  Herpetological Review. 42:  542–545.

 

 Piotrowski, J. S.,  S. Annis  &  J. E.  Longcore.  2004.  Physiology of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a chytrid pathogen of amphibians.  Mycologia. 96 (1):  9–15.

 

Reeves, M. K.  2008.  Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in wood frogs (Lithobates sylvatica) from Three National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska, USA.  Herpetological Review. 39 (1):  68–70

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Ron, S. R.  2005.  Predicting the Distribution of the Amphibian Pathogen B. dendrobatidis in the New World.  Biotropica. 37 (2):  209–221.

 

Rowley, J., S. K. Chan, W. S. Tang, R. Speare, L. F.  Skerratt, R. A. Alford, K. S. Cheung, C. Y.  Ho   &  R. Campbell.  2007.   Survey for the amphibianchytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Hong Kong in native amphibians and in the international amphibian trade.   Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 78 (2):  87–95.

 

Schloegel,  L. M.,  J. M. Hero,  L. Berger,  R. Speare, K. McDonald  &  P.  Daszak.  2006.  The decline of the sharp-snouted day frog (Taudactylus acutiostris): the first documented case of extinction by infection in a free-ranging wildlife species?    EcoHealth. 3:  35–40.

 

Symonds, E. P.,  D. J. Trott,  P. S. Bird  &  P. Mills.  2008.  Growth characteristics and enzyme activity in Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis isolates.   Mycopathologia. 166 (3):  143–147.

 

Voyles, J.,  S. Young, L. Berger, C. Campbell, W. F. Voyles, A. Dinudom, D. Cook, R. Webb, R. A. Alford, L. F.  Skerratt  &  R. Speare.  2009.  Pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis, a cause of catastrophic amphibian declines.  Science. 326 (5952):  582–585.

 

Wei, Y.;  K. Xu;  D.-Z. Zhu;  X.-F. Chen & X.-L. Wang.   2010.   First Early-spring survey for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in wild Rana dybowskii in Heilongjiang Province, China.   Dis Aquat Org. 92 (3):  241–244.

 

Weldon  C.,  L. H. du Preez, A. D. Hyatt, R. Muller  & R. Spears.  2004.  Origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus.  Emerging Infect. Dis. 10 (12):  2100–5.

 

Woodhams,  D. C., R. A. Alford  & G. Maranteli.  2003.  Emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature.  Dis. Aquat. Org. 55 (1):  65–7.

 

Yang, H.;  H. Baek;  R. Speare;  R. Webb;  S. Park;  T. Kim;  K. C. Lasater;  S. Shin;  S. Son;  J. Park;  M. Min;  Y. Kim;  K. Na;  H. Lee & S. Park.  2008.  First detection of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in free-ranging populations of amphibians on mainland Asia: survey in South Korea.   Dis Aquat Org. 86 (1):  9–13.